‘Nudge Ethics: Critical Views’ Summary

• Nudges can be classified as either Type 2 (affecting reflective choice or an active response) or Type 1 (the targeted outcome is more automatic or the nudged’s reaction more passive).
• The public is more likely to approve of nonintrusive interventions and nudges that target or benefit from deliberative (System 2) processing.
• Ethical challenges of nudges focus on the goals of the nudger, the autonomy of the nudged, and the effects of the nudge.
• With respect to a nudger’s GOALS, ethical evaluations depend on the motive (selfish, paternalistic, or pro-social) and who stands to benefit (nudger, nudged, others, or the collective). Nudge critics argue that nudgers often make assumptions about the nudged’s preferences or may disregard these preferences altogether.
• With respect to the AUTONOMY of the nudged, critics lament that nudges take advantage of people’s biases and often lack transparency, are manipulative, diminish active choice, and erode individual agency.
• With respect to the EFFECTS of nudges, critical views may question either their efficacy (especially in the long term) or potential unintended effects. The latter may include backfire effects or side effects, for example, impinging on the welfare of the nudged and other groups.
• The next lesson addresses these ethical concerns and offers practical recommendations to practitioners.

Further Reading

Critical Nudge Theory

Gigerenzer, G. (2015). On the supposed evidence for libertarian paternalism. Review of Philosophy and Psychology, 6(3), 361-383.

Hertwig, R., & Grüne-Yanoff, T. (2017). Nudging and boosting: Steering or empowering good decisions. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 12(6), 973-986. Retrieved from https://europepmc.org/article/med/ 28792862.

Kosters, M., & Van der Heijden, J. (2015). From mechanism to virtue: Evaluating Nudge theory. Evaluation, 21(3), 276-291. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277013374.

Loewenstein, G., & Chater, N. (2017). Putting nudges in perspective. Behavioural Public Policy, 1(1), 26-53. Retrieved from https://www.cmu.edu/dietrich/sds/docs/loewenstein/putting_nudges_in_ perspective.pdf.

Public Opinion About Nudging

Branson, C., Duffy, B., Perry, C., & Wellings, D. (2012). Acceptable behaviour? Public opinion on behaviour change policy. Ipsos MORI. Retrieved from https://www.ipsos.com/ipsos-mori/en-uk/acceptable-behaviour.

Mazzocchi, M., Cagnone, S., Bech-Larsen, T., Niedźwiedzka, B., Saba, A., Shankar, B., Verbeke, W., & Traill, W. B. (2015). What is the public appetite for healthy eating policies? Evidence from a cross-European survey. Health Economics, Policy and Law, 10, 267-292. Retrieved from https://www.research-gate.net/publication/263995899.

Sunstein, C. R., Reisch, L. A., & Rauber, J. (2018). A worldwide consensus on nudging? Not quite, but almost. Regulation & Governance, 12(1), 3-22. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1111/rego.12161.

Nudge Ethics

Allcott, H., & Kessler, J. B. (2019). The welfare effects of nudges: A case study of energy use social comparisons. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 11(1), 236-276. Retrieved from https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2679710.

Bovens, L. (2009). The ethics of nudge. In T. Grüne-Yanoff, & S. O. Hansson (Eds.), Preference change (pp. 207-219). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer. Retrieved from https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf /186330277.pdf.

Clavien, C. (2018). Ethics of nudges: A general framework with a focus on shared preference justifications. Journal of Moral Education, 47(3), 366-382. Retrieved from http://www.christineclavien.ch /Documents/17_Clavien_EthicsOfNudges_08.12.2017.pdf.

Damgaard, M. T., & Gravert, C. (2018). The hidden costs of nudging: Experimental evidence from reminders in fundraising. Journal of Public Economics, 157, 15-26. Retrieved from https://core.ac.uk/ reader/43562126.

Hausman, D. M., & Welch, B. (2010). Debate: To nudge or not to nudge. Journal of Political Philosophy 18(1), 123-136. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229562409.

Lin, Y., Osman, M., & Ashcroft, R. (2017). Nudge: Concept, effectiveness, and ethics. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 39(6), 293-306. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/ 320969370.

Robinson, C. (2019, August 21). When awards backfire. BehavioralEconomics.com. Retrieved from https://www.behaviouraleconomic.co.uk/when-awards-backfire/.

Schmidt, A. T., & Engelen, B. (2020). The ethics of nudging: An overview. Philosophy Compass. https://doi.org/10.1111/phc3.12658.

Schubert, C. (2015). On the ethics of public nudging: Autonomy and agency. SSRN. Retrieved from https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2672970.

Tiefenbeck, V., Staake, T., Roth, K., & Sachs, O. (2013). For better or for worse? Empirical evidence of moral licensing in a behavioral energy conservation campaign. Energy Policy, 57, 160-171. Retrieved from http://www1.montpellier.inra.fr/lameta/articles/a2d2_2014/EcoComp2.pdf.

Thunström, L. (2019, February 19). Good for some, bad for others: The welfare effects of nudges. BehavioralEconomics.com. Retrieved from https://www.behaviouraleconomic.co.uk/good-for-some-bad-for-others-the-welfare-effects-of-nudges/

Please complete the exercise below before you continue to the next lesson.